Intervención temprana de la lectura y la escritura en estudiantes españoles / Effects of early reading and writing intervention on Spanish school children

El objetivo de este trabajo es analizar el rendimiento en lectura y escritura en estudiantes españoles, tras su intervención desde edades tem-pranas. La finalidad de la intervención es priorizar y sistematizar la instruc-ción en principio alfabético, conciencia fonológica, fluidez lectoescritora, vocabulario y comprensión textual. La muestra está formada por 126 suje-tos, distribuidos en grupo instruido (n=62) y grupo no instruido (n=64), pertenecientes a zonas socioculturales medias, con inteligencia normal y sin déficits físicos, psíquicos y/o sensoriales. Los sujetos son evaluados desde 2º curso de Educación Infantil(cuatro años) hasta 1º curso de Educación Primaria (seis años). El diseño es longitudinal con medidas repetidas (cua-tro evaluaciones), tres fases de intervención y dos variables de estudio (Rendimiento en Lectura y Rendimiento en Escritura) y dos grupos de su-jetos. Se realizan análisis estadísticos descriptivos y análisis de varianza de medidas repetidas. Los resultados obtenidos indican mejores puntuaciones en lectura y escritura a lo largo de todas las evaluaciones y un avance signi-ficativamente mayor enel grupo instruido. Estos resultados demuestran la eficacia de una intervención temprana del lenguaje escrito a través de la ins-trucción sistemática en conciencia fonológica, principio alfabético, fluidez lectoescritora, vocabulario y comprensión textual.(AU)

The aim of this paper is to analyse the reading and writing achievement of Spanish school children following an intervention con-ducted at an early age. The purpose of the intervention is to prioritise and systematise instruction in the alphabetic principles, phonological aware-ness, reading fluency, vocabulary, and text comprehension. The sample consists of 126 subjects, distributed between an instructed group(n=62) and an uninstructed group (n=64). All the subjects were from average so-cio-cultural areas, with normal intelligence and with no physical, mental, and/or sensory deficits. Subjects were evaluated from the second year of Early Years Education (4 years of age) up to the first year of Primary Edu-cation (six years of age). The design was longitudinal with repeated meas-urements (four assessments), three intervention phases, two study variables (reading achievement and writing achievement), and two groups of sub-jects. Descriptive statistical analysis and repeated measures analyses of var-iance were performed. The results obtained indicate higher scores in read-ing and writing throughout all the assessments and significantly greater progress in the instructed group. These results demonstrate the effective-ness of early intervention in written language through systematic instruc-tion in phonological awareness, the alphabetic principles, reading fluency, vocabulary, and text comprehension.(AU)

Emotional Adjustment among Adolescent Students with and without Specific Learning Disabilities.

Adolescence is a psychologically vulnerable stage in which problems of emotional adjustment and psychological well-being can appear. The aim of this study is to analyse the relationship and comparison of emotional deficits and resources among adolescents with or without specific learning disabilities. We evaluated 80 students distributed into two groups: 40 adolescents with specific learning disabilities and 40 normative adolescents matched with the previous group in terms of age, sex, and school year. The study variables are internalising problems (anxiety and depression), externalising problems (aggression, anger control, defiant behaviour, and antisocial behaviour), and personal resources (self-esteem, social competence and integration, and awareness of problems), evaluated by means of the SENA test. The results indicate a positive relationship between externalising and internalising problems and a negative relationship between the latter and some personal resources in both groups. We also found that adolescents with specific learning disabilities displayed more internalising and externalising symptoms than their peers, greater awareness of their emotional difficulties, and lower self-esteem and social integration and competence. The findings highlight the need for preventive interventions that promote the psychological well-being and mental health of adolescents within the school setting at an early age.

Predictors of Word and Pseudoword Reading in Languages with Different Orthographic Consistency.

This study analyzes the impact of certain cognitive processes on word and pseudoword reading in languages with different orthographic consistency (Spanish and Arabic) in the first year of Primary Education. The study was conducted with a group of 113 pupils from Algeria and another group of 128 pupils from Ecuador, from a middle-class background and without any special education needs. The participants were assessed in terms of their reading ability of words and pseudowords, knowledge of letters, phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming, and phonological memory. Using a correlational design, descriptive-exploratory, bivariate, and hierarchical multivariate regressions were applied to the different measures of reading in each language. The findings show that knowledge of letters, phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming, and phonological memory contribute differently to the explanation of reading ability in each group at the start of compulsory schooling. These results have important implications for the teaching of reading skills and the prevention of specific learning disabilities, as well as the theory of reading acquisition.

Análisis de la comprensión lectora y sus dificultades en adolescentes / Analysis of reading comprehension and disabilities among teenagers

Estudios evolutivos que analicen el desarrollo de la comprensión lectora y sus dificultades en la adolescencia son relevantes, dada la importancia que ello tiene a estas edades en relación al rendimiento académico. El objetivo de este estudio es analizar el rendimiento y las dificultades en comprensión lectora y sus componentes en la adolescencia. La muestra está compuesta por 203 alumnos entre 12 y 14 años, pertenecientes a 1º, 2º, y 3º de Educación Secundaria Obligatoria de un centro seleccionado al azar de una zona sociocultural media de Málaga. Los alumnos son evaluados en comprensión lectora a través de la selección y organización de ideas textuales, conocimiento semántico y morfosintáctico, tras la lectura de un texto descriptivo, y en metacognición, con un cuestionario de consciencia lectora. El diseño es observacional trasversal, con una medida en cinco variables y tres grupos de estudiantes. Se realiza comparación entre medias y análisis de porcentajes de las dificultades. Los resultados muestran diferencias significativas entre los grupos en las variables de estudio, siendo las puntuaciones más altas en tercer curso. También se encuentra entre un 15-30% de dificultades de comprensión lectora en estas edades. Los porcentajes son mayores en selección y organización de ideas en todos los cursos, y en todas las variables los porcentajes son mayores en 3º curso. Estos resultados implican la necesidad de incidir en los procesos de enseñanza-aprendizaje de la comprensión lectora desde edades tempranas, con el fin de evitar las dificultades en la ESO.(AU)

Evolutionary studies that analyse the development of reading comprehension and related difficulties among teenagers are relevant, given importance of this skill for academic performance at this age. The aim of this study is to analyse performance and difficulties in reading comprehen-sion and its components during adolescence. The sample is composed of 203 students aged 12 to 14, in the first, second, and third year of compul-sory Secondary Education from a randomly selected school in an average socio-cultural area of Malaga. Students are evaluated for reading compre-hension through the selection and organisation of textual ideas, as well as semantic and morpho-syntactic knowledge, after reading a descriptive text. Metacognition is assessed by means of a reading awareness questionnaire. The design is cross-sectional and observational, measuring five variables across three groups of students. A comparison of means and analysis of percentages of difficulties is carried out. The results show significant dif-ferencesbetween the groups in the study variables, with the highest scores in the third year. Furthermore, between 15-30% of reading comprehension difficulties are found at these ages. The percentages are higher in the selec-tion and organisation of ideas across all three school years examined, and the percentages are higher in the third year for all the variables. These re-sults imply the need to control the teaching-learning processes of reading comprehension from an early age, in order to avoid difficulties in the first few years of secondary education.(AU)

Learning Disabilities in Reading and Writing and Type of Delivery in Twin Births.

The aim of this study was to analyse the relationship between the type of delivery (vaginal or caesarean), as a risk factor, and the likelihood of having learning disabilities in reading (reading accuracy) and writing (phonetic and visual orthography), controlling for the interaction and/or confounding effect of gestational, obstetric, and neonatal variables (maternal age at delivery, gestational age, foetal presentation, Apgar 1, and newborn weight) among six-year-old children born in twin births. In this retrospective cohort study, the exposed and non-exposed cohorts consisted of children born by caesarean section and vaginal delivery, respectively. A total of 124 children born in twin births were evaluated in year one of primary education. Intelligence was measured using the K-BIT test; reading and writing variables were evaluated using the Evalúa-1 battery of tests, and clinical records were used to measure gestational, obstetric, and neonatal variables. Binary logistic regressions applied to each dependent variable indicated that caesarean delivery is a possible independent risk factor for difficulties in reading accuracy and phonetic and visual orthography. Future research using larger samples of younger children is required to analyse the relationship between obstetric and neonatal variables and the different basic indicators of reading and writing.

Effect of Cognitive Variables on the Reading Ability of Spanish Children at Age Seven.

The objective of this study is to determine the contribution made by knowledge of letters, phonological awareness, phonological memory, and alphanumeric and non-alphanumeric rapid automatized naming at the ages of six and seven to the ability of Spanish children to read words at 7 years of age. A total of 116 Spanish-speaking school children took part in the study, from schools located in an average socio-cultural setting, without special educational needs. The reading ability of these pupils was evaluated at the age of seven, and cognitive variables were assessed at 6 and 7 years of age. Descriptive-exploratory analyses, bivariate analyses, and multivariate regressions were performed. The results show that cognitive variables measured at these ages contribute differently to the ability to read words at 7 years of age. Rapid naming does not seem to influence word reading; knowledge of letters no longer influences word reading as children grow older; and phonological awareness and phonological memory maintain their contribution to the explanation of word reading. These results indicate that reading in Spanish depends on different cognitive variables and that this relationship varies according to age. The findings have key educational implications in terms of teaching reading skills and the prevention of specific learning difficulties in Spanish Primary Education.

Assessing Dyslexia at Six Year of Age.

In recent years, there has been an increase in the prevalence of dyslexia at early ages in different countries and regions. This increase has serious consequences within school and family settings, due to the poor academic performance that characterizes people with dyslexia and the socio-emotional problems they sometimes display. One of the most frequent problems in the identification of the dyslexia is the lack of a common diagnostic protocol that encompasses specific criteria for the assessment of any child. The Learning Disabilities and Development Disorders research group at the University of Malaga has developed a protocol for the early detection of dyslexia. The protocol is based on the diagnostic and response to intervention models. Consequently, it takes into account diagnostic criteria agreed upon by some associations and committees of experts, as well as certain specific cognitive and language determinants that characterize people who present with dyslexia following adequate instruction, according to recent research. The action protocol is developed over several stages, and we propose the use of structured interviews with parents and teachers alongside standardized tests for the evaluation of intelligence, reading and writing, as well as the risk factors that determine the appearance of the problem. This action protocol provides a model for the detection of dyslexia, which seeks to distinguish it from other comorbid problems and identify its characteristics and determinants, in order to offer effective intervention and/or prevention from an early age.

Type of delivery and reading, writing, and arithmetic learning in twin births.

This study analyses, in children born in twin births, the relationship between reading, writing and arithmetic learning, on the one hand, and type of delivery, on the other, controlling for the effect of interaction and/or confusion of third variables (maternal age at delivery, gestational age, fetal position, birthweight, 1-min Apgar score). In the planned retrospective cohort design, the exposed cohort consisted of children born by caesarean section, and the non-exposed cohort was comprised of children born vaginally. One hundred and twenty-four children born of twin births were evaluated during their first year of primary school: K-BIT tests were used to measure intelligence; the Evalúa-1 battery was used to assess reading, writing, and arithmetic ability; and the children's clinical histories were analysed for obstetric and neonatal variables. After applying binary logistic regressions for each dependent variable, it was found that caesarean delivery in twin births appeared as a possible independent risk factor for specific learning disabilities (LDs) in reading, writing, and arithmetic. Based on these results, further research using larger samples and at more advanced ages is required in order to analyse the influence of obstetric and neonatal variables on the processes underlying specific LDs.

Type of Delivery, Neuropsychological Development and Intelligence in Twin Births.

Based on a retrospective cohort design with 6-year-old children born in twin births, the relationship between verbal, non-verbal, global neuropsychological development, general intelligence and type of delivery has been studied. To this end, the possible effect of third gestational, obstetric and neonatal variables, such as maternal age at delivery, fetal presentation, gestational age, newborn weight and Apgar at minute one, was controlled. The exposed cohort includes children born by cesarean section, and the unexposed cohort is composed of children born vaginally with or without induction. A total of 124 children were evaluated in their 1st year of primary school using the Child Neuropsychological Maturity Questionnaire, Kaufman's Intelligence Test and the medical histories of the children collected after birth. By means of binary logistic regression analysis, it has been found that the type of delivery is presented as an independent risk factor for disorders in verbal, non-verbal and global development and for the general intellectual difficulties of children born of multiple births. These results suggest the need to analyze in future prospective studies with broader samples the relationship between different types of obstetric and perinatal variables of birth type and infant neuropsychological development and general intelligence, in order to prevent possible psychological alterations from birth.

Motivación de logro y lenguaje escrito en adolescentes españoles / Motivation and written language in Spanish adolescents

La mayoría de los estudios sobre lectura y escritura analizan su relación con factores cognitivos-lingüísticos, siendo menos frecuentes los relacionados con la motivación. Este estudio analiza la relación de la motivación de logro con la composición escrita y la comprensión lectora en adolescentes españoles. La muestra está formada por 203 sujetos de 1º (ME=12.4, DT=1.28), 2º (ME=13.6, DT=1.02) y 3º (ME=14.2, DT=1.34) de Educación Secundaria Obligatoria, de clase sociocultural media, con niveles intelectuales normales y sin déficits físicos, psíquicos o sensoriales. Se evalúa la motivación de logro en función de la frecuencia de pensamientos relacionados con la realización de las tareas académicas. La composición escrita fue evaluada en términos de progresión temática, conocimiento semántico, morfosintáctico y metacognición. La comprensión lectora se evaluó en términos de selección y organización de ideas, conocimiento semántico, morfosintáctico y metacognición. El diseño es transversal y se realiza análisis de regresión lineal. Los resultados obtenidos indican que la motivación de logro explica un 17% de la composición escrita y entre un 16 y 27% de la comprensión lectora, según el curso. Se destaca la relación de la motivación de logro con el lenguaje escrito y su posible repercusión en los problemas de composición escrita y comprensión lectora en la adolescencia

The relationship reading and writing with cognitive-linguistic factors is analyzed for most studies, being less frequent the studies related with motivation. This study analyse the relation of the motivation and writing composition and reading comprehension, in Spanish teenagers. The sample this formed by 203 subjects of 1º (ME=12.4, DT=1.28), 2º (ME=13.6, DT=1.02) y 3º (ME=14.2, DT=1.34) of compulsory secondary education, of class media sociocultural, with normal intellectual levels and without deficits physical, psychic or sensory. The students were evaluated in motivation in terms of frequency of thoughts about performance of academics tasks. The written composition was evaluated in terms of thematic progression, semantic, morphosyntactic and metacognition. And the reading comprehension evaluated in terms of selection and organization of ideas, semantic, morphosyntactic and metacognition. The design is transversal and we realised analysis of lineal regression. The results obtained indicate that the motivation explains 17% of the written composition and between 16 and 27% of the reading comprehension, according to the academic level. The relationship of motivation and written language in this ages and their potential impact on problems in written composition and reading comprehension in adolescence is emphasized

The influence of obstetric variables on school achievement, intelligence and neuropsychological development in a sample of Spanish twins at the age of six: a retrospective study.

OBJECTIVES: The increasing number of multiple pregnancies in recent years has raised a particular concern about the problems associated to these pregnancies. It still remains unclear whether twin deliveries, as currently conceived, provide the same future health chances to both fetuses. In this regard, it is worth mentioning that the effects of obstetric and neonatal care beyond the perinatal period have not often been evaluated. The main objective of this research was to analyze the impact of obstetric and perinatal variables on postnatal neuropsychological development, intelligence and school achievement of twin children. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional and observational study on 62 pairs of 6-year-old twins, who were on their first year of primary education. All 124 children and their mother were individually assessed and perinatal clinical data were collected. A stratified multivariate analysis was performed using multiple linear regressions. RESULTS: The type of birth was the best predicting variable, so that the best results were achieved in children born in spontaneous vaginal deliveries. Comparatively, however, poorer scores were seen in males second twins born by the vaginal route in spatial structuring, non-verbal development and total development areas, especially in case of delivery before 37 weeks. CONCLUSIONS: Our study confirms the impact of some obstetric variables on school achievement and psychological development of twins.

Exposure to synthetic oxytocin during delivery and its effect on psychomotor development.

The main objective is to examine the influence of oxytocin administration during delivery on psychomotor development at age five years. This was a retrospective cohort study involving two groups: children of mothers exposed vs. not exposed to oxytocin during labor. Of the 7,465 newborns registered in our maternity service during 2006 we randomly selected an initial sample of 400 children. Of these, 146 children were assessed using the motor scale of the Battelle Developmental Inventory. Other predictor variables that could potentially act as confounders and/or interact with the main relationship were also examined. The data were subjected to bivariate analysis, estimates of measures of strength of association, stratified analysis and multivariate binary logistic regression. The results indicate that exposure to synthetic oxytocin during delivery is an independent risk factor for a delay in gross and fine motor development. This was the case after controlling for the variables duration of labor and sex of the newborn, none of which modified the effect of oxytocin on gross and fine motor development. However, sex of the newborn were shown to be confounding gross motor development. In light of these results, and with the aim of preventing possible psychomotor alterations, further studies are now needed to analyze the effect that the oxytocin dose and the duration of perfusion may have on children's subsequent development.

Effects of oxytocin used during delivery on development: a retrospective cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: The objective was to evaluate the potential influence of oxytocin administered during delivery on children's development at the age of 5. METHOD: This study was designed as a retrospective cohort study where children from patients given synthetic oxytocin during delivery were considered as the exposed cohort and children from patients not given oxytocin as the nonexposed cohort. From a total of 7465 births attended at our maternity ward in 2006, an initial sample of 400 was randomly selected. A total of 148 children were evaluated using the Battelle Developmental Inventory. Potential confounding and adjustment factors were analyzed using stratified analysis and multivariate analysis (logistic regression). RESULTS: Oxytocin use did not significantly affect the overall risk of developmental delay in the study sample (relative risk, RR, 1.46; 95% confidence interval, CI [0.79-2.71]). The best fit regression model included twin delivery, type of delivery, and maternal age. In the group of vaginal noninstrumental deliveries, oxytocin administration increased the risk of poor Battelle Developmental Inventory outcome, particularly when maternal age was under 28 or over 35 years of age (odds ratio, OR, 67.14; 95% CI [5.46-824.86]). When delivery was instrumental or through cesarean section in mothers aged 28-35 years, oxytocin administration decreased the risk of developmental disorders (OR 0.16; 95% CI [0.04-0.66]). CONCLUSION: Although oxytocin administration during delivery did not affect the overall risk of low Battelle Developmental Inventory scores in the study sample, some effects were seen according to maternal age and type of birth.